Archive for June, 2010
Types of respondents in qualitative research, and research consumerism
June 30th, 2010
Interview with Pravin Shekar, Chief-BizDev and New Initiatives, Dexterity, Chennai (www.dexterity.in), March 27, 2009, 1 pm
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Ophthalmic Drugs: Small Field, Large-Scale Development
June 30th, 2010
At present, the domestic market by foreign pharmaceutical companies accounted for 75% of the share, and the most exclusive high-end ophthalmic products by foreign-invested enterprises, domestic pharmaceutical companies to enhance scientific and technological content of products imminent.
In April 2008, Novartis spent 11 billion U.S. dollars of professional ophthalmic pharmaceutical company acquired 25% stake in Alcon, and said the future will be invested 28 billion U.S. dollars to buy the remaining shares. In the context of economic crisis, Novartis has invested nearly 40 billion yuan acquisition of a billion dollars in annual sales of only 60 companies, many of whom are baffled. After all, Pfizer buy Wyeth over the same period (2008 annual sales of 29 billion U.S. dollars) is also just 600 billion dollars. However, the completion of the acquisition, Novartis chairman and chief executive Daniel Vasella has claimed that this acquisition is very cost-effective, because with the advent of an aging society, ophthalmic drug market will be a hot profit growth.
In China, rapid economic development and the use of eye health education, seriously flawed, making China the largest country in the world’s blind people, about 9 million visually disabled. The dry eye, chronic conjunctivitis, glaucoma and retinopathy, the incidence rate significantly increased, the medical profession urgently need a new type of eye medication available to reverse the current status of high incidence of eye disease. As the National Sight Day slogan: “Everyone has the Right to Sight.”
High-profile global market
Ophthalmology medicine is a naturally formed an independent system, and clinical drug has certain characteristics, in the formulation, the basic drugs for eye drops and eye ointment gel-based, according to the latest 2009 statistics of hospital medicine, internal Eye Hospital mainly include four kinds of medication dosage forms: eye drops, eye ointment gels, tablets and injections, including eye drops and eye ointment gels occupied for more than 8 into the share.
The unique nature of ophthalmic drugs, making it the market has long been a number of ophthalmic specialty pharmaceutical company occupied, competition, moderate the growth rate is also very limited. However, as other major therapeutic areas, drug market saturation, large pharmaceutical companies are also looking to get into specialty markets, its strong R & D capabilities and efficient marketing to promote market growth makes the rapid increase in ophthalmic drug, Pfizer’s Xalatan, and Roche, Novartis co-promotion of Lucentis have entered a “blockbuster” in the ranks.
All along, the ophthalmic drug market is a profitable area, but due to market a smaller scale, very few multi-national pharmaceutical giants will focus on here, therefore, ophthalmic prescription drug market has long been Alcon, Allergan, and trees and other professional ophthalmology company occupied varieties to the main anti-inflammatory anti-inflammatory medication.
However, as a breakthrough in glaucoma drug study, prostaglandins, and Zuo-amine dosage of the rapid rise in intraocular pressure lowering drug market has stimulated the rapid growth – in 2008, Pfizer’s latanoprost 1.745 billion global sales U.S. dollars, the total sales of goods listed so far have been more than 10 billion U.S. dollars, while Merck’s drug Sato amine compound dorzolamide-timolol, in 2008 sales reached 7.8 billion U.S. dollars.
With the development of modern society, with substantial increases in the incidence of dry eye syndrome, therefore, sales of artificial tears significantly improved, Alcon, as well as the tears ran the Hyalein towering single-product sales exceeded 200 million U.S. dollars. The retinopathy has recently been a very hot area of research, Novartis and Roche jointly marketed for the treatment of retinal neovascular disease, Lucentis (ranibizumab) in 2006, listed 2008 sales reached 17.68 U.S. dollars, exceeding Latanoprost eye become the world’s best-selling drug.
In glaucoma, retinopathy and other drugs under the impetus of 2008, the global ophthalmic market for prescription drugs mark the first time exceeded 10 billion U.S. dollars, reaching 10.545 billion U.S. dollars, representing 13.2% growth in 2007, much higher than the overall increase in drugs.
R & D worth the wait
As a potential growth area of medicine, the future development trend of ophthalmic drugs do? In this, the author briefly ophthalmic drug development trend of the future for the peer reference.
The field of glaucoma drug research is now generally agreed that the optic nerve protection will become the future direction of development. Optic nerve protection theory that, through the intervention of drugs or other means of access blocked optic nerve injury and enhanced survival mechanism of retinal ganglion cells, so that those who have not damaged or only partially damaged, or are in a toxic environment within the near death of retinal neurons ganglion cells survived or extend their survival time in order to cure glaucoma and other eye diseases. However, according to the mechanism of the drug generally is still in the early stages of development. Recently, the glaucoma drug R & D hot spots, or find a better Prostaglandins glaucoma medication and research compounds.
Tafluprost is a novel prostaglandin-type drugs by the Japanese Chihisa and Merck jointly develop and its receptor selective higher clinical efficacy was significantly better than latanoprost, the product is expected by the end of this year in the global market; Love Erkang developed brinzolamide eye drops Quwo prostaglandin compound is currently in Phase Ⅲ clinical, clinical results show that the dose of compound preparation significantly reduced, and a strong antihypertensive effect.
Anti-inflammatory and anti-infection drug research and development area of the direction of the current mainly two: First, some antibacterial effect stronger, broader antibacterial spectrum of antibiotics and gradually developed ophthalmic preparations, which will improve a large extent on the serious ophthalmic antibiotic resistance problems, such as Alcon’s moxifloxacin / dexamethasone compound preparation and the United States InSite’s release of azithromycin are listed on the recently approved. Second, anti-inflammatory medication, a number of biological products has shown the exact mitigation keratoconjunctivitis Yandeng eye disease and uveal inflammatory effect and safety of biological products was significantly higher than the existing anti-inflammatory medication. There are already developed by the domestic manufacturers of recombinant human epidermal growth factor (Yi Pui), basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and other biological products market, the market prospect.
Dry eye medication for existing methods of treatment of dry eye syndrome is mainly artificial tear replacement therapy, but most artificial tears contain preservatives and preservative-induced dry eye syndrome is one of the reasons. In addition, artificial tears and the tears, after all, there is still difference, it is difficult to avoid the not irritate the eyes.
Prolacria is a mechanism developed by Inspire’s novel dry eye medication, it is by stimulating the eye surface and eyelid lining in the P2Y2 receptor, increasing the key component of natural tears, water, salt, mucin and lipid secretion. Tear film of these major components of the increase in tear volume and composition would improve the use of artificial tears more than simply improve the patient’s eye function. In addition, the study found that dry eye syndrome, and genetic and autoimmune bears a closer relationship, the study concluded that, through gene therapy, to improve the dry eye patients have abnormal expression of vitamin A, so that lacrimal gland secretion to normal, and basically remove the dry eye disease. In addition, the dry eye Sjogren’s syndrome has also been classified as a category, according to TCM theory, dry eye is dry card areas, dry blood body fluid evil injury, leaving Yin-chun, wear and tear, for the Chinese medicine conditioning also enable the The lacrimal gland function in some patients returned to normal.
The field of angiogenesis drugs, these drugs will be the future of ophthalmology market, important species, early studies have found that by inhibiting angiogenesis around the tumor may block the tumor’s nutrient supply, which would act as a “starving to death” the role of the tumor, and this drugs for certain retinal degenerative diseases such as age, sex spot also has excellent results, is currently the best-selling clinical ophthalmology drug Lucentis is a vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) antibody, can inhibit angiogenesis, for retinal neovascular diseases, such as wet age-related macular degeneration (wet AMD), proliferative diabetic retinopathy and cystoid macular edema and other diseases have a definite effect.
While in Phase Ⅲ clinical VEGF trap-eye is considered to be the next one “blockbuster” level drug, Bayer 2006, up to 375 million U.S. dollars of the transfer price to obtain the drug without U.S. sales license . VEGF trap-eye is a company developed by Regeneron angiogenesis inhibitors by human VEGF receptor 1 and receptor 2 extracellular domain and human immunoglobulin (IgG) together to form a segment of the Fc fusion protein with the affinity of VEGF is much higher than Lucentis, In addition, the role of the drug have anti-PLGF can further enhance angiogenesis inhibition.
It is understood that the current domestic market of such drugs have not yet, but recently in Hong Kong at the World Ophthalmology Congress, West China Hospital of Sichuan Province in China is introduced to Dr. Zhang Ming independently developed neovascularization inhibitor KH902. The drug for high-affinity VEGF receptor, recombinant fusion protein, Ⅰ Phase I clinical display, for wet AMD patients, the drug efficacy of precise visual acuity after treatment in patients with an average of 20 letters, is currently in clinical trials to improve eyesight reported the most significant drugs, which also shows that, despite domestic enterprises and multinational giants in research and development there are still a wide gap, but for the development of original drugs, domestic enterprises do not do anything.
Even if the eye in recent years, achieved a series of breakthroughs in drug research, but for the optic atrophy, neovascular glaucoma, macular degeneration such as shrinkage of some difficult diseases, lack of treatment programs, in particular, a large number of basic research needed to provide support for pharmaceutical research. In addition, the face of various refractive errors, especially myopia, there is no a definite advent of effective drugs, so we look forward to a more safe and effective drug treatment of myopia at an early date for clinical, but also believe that this time, and not far away.
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Methods Of Market Research
June 29th, 2010
Market Research is a process of collection and analysis of data for the purpose of study of the requirements of specific markets, acceptability of products, target market and competition and methods of developing and exploiting new markets. But before one starts conducting market research and strategy studies one has to keep this fact in mind that it requires a comprehensive understanding of the problem to be addressed, the market, the application of research procedures.
The primary goal of any market research project is to achieve an increased understanding of the subject matter.
The information collected through market research can be divided in two categories, primary information which is gathered through primary research like Email, telemarketing and personal interviews. The other category, secondary information is gathered through secondary research on compiled database organized by a source.
Primary Research
When research is conducted to gather original data, it is called primary research. For this original research plan must be devised for data collection, data input and then the production and analysis of the subsequent results. Although it is a lengthy and expensive to conduct, results of the research are original hence more relevant to the needs of the client. The two basic types of primary research are qualitative and quantitative
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is numerically oriented, and requires measurement of market phenomena and often involves statistical analysis. The main rule with quantitative research is that every respondent is asked the same series of questions. The approach is very structured and normally involves large numbers of interviews/questionnaires.
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research provides an understanding of how or why things are as they are. Unlike quantitative research there are no fixed set of questions but, instead, a topic guide is used to explore various issues in-depth. The discussion between the interviewer and the respondent is largely determined by the respondents’ own thoughts and feelings. As with quantitative techniques, there are also various types of qualitative methodologies.
Descriptive research is the most commonly used and the basic reason for using this is to identify the cause of a market phenomena. For instance, this research could be done in order to find out about a which particular age group is buying a particular brand of a consumer good, and whether a company’s market share differs between geographical regions or to discover the number of competitor a company has in a targeted marketplace.
Casual Research is done to find out the consequent effect of changing one variable on another. The research is used to measure what impact a specific change will have on existing market conditions and helps to predict hypothetical scenarios upon which a company can base its business plan. To summarize, causal research is a way of forecasting how different actions now will have an impact on a business in the future.
Exploratory research allows market researcher to gain a greater understanding of a specific subject about which little is known. For example, just because generally we have idea that 3G phones exist, it doesn’t necessarily mean that we understand how they work. Exploratory research can help to garner information in this instance. It differs mainly in design from descriptive research, exploratory research is used principally to gain a deeper understanding of something. The design is far more flexible and dynamic than that of descriptive research.
Pawan pandey is the Marketing manager of Ipacesetters Pvt Ltd, A leading Market Research & Telemarketing Company. That helps you to develop your business directory and growth your business development in all over world.
The Basics And Importance Of Calibration
June 29th, 2010
Calibration is one process that is done in almost all industries, be it publishing, medical, or commercial. Unfortunately, calibrating is such a technical term that not all people know that it is actually being done even in their own homes.
Calibration is the process of checking machines and making sure that values used in measurements remain at standard points. It is the process of verifying a machines work and performance within a set of specifications.
When done the right way, calibration can make your life easier and better. It allows for faster processes and of course with lesser errors and mistakes. During calibration, it is also important to make sure that the measurements taken during the period is also valid. Remember that whatever values that you have gotten during the calibration process are the values that are accepted to be the most accurate and precise.
Problems however arise when the calibration service is not done correctly. This is frequently what happens when a low cost service is purchased. It is important that you get a good service especially if your company is operating under a standardized quality system like that of the ISO 9000.
The implementation in fact of the ISO 9000 became one of the primary reasons why calibration software is so popular. In order to operate within the set standards, one need to regularly check the machines and networks that are being used.
Calibration is based on the data that has been collated and gathered by experts in the fields. Often, these data came from experiments, studies and projects which required calibration. The many data supporting the process is the reason why calibrating standards have long been established.
When calibrated, a machine or a system is compared against another machine whose values have already been standardized and established. The larger the base that was used in the calibration, the better and wider will be the chances of the inaccurate values to be replaced and readjusted. The introduction of newer and more sophisticated models only serve to refine the standard.
One of the wonders that people have discovered in the world of science and measurements is calibration. Often referred to as the process of verifying and determining the relationship between the output and the response of measuring instrument to the value of the input quantity, calibration is known as a measurement standard.
For non-specialized use, calibration involves the entire process of adjusting the output/result or the indication on a measurement instrument to correlate with the value of the applied standard within the boundary of specific accuracy.
WHY USE CALIBRATION?
In more modern and scientific language, calibration is referred to the natural process of transition that is used to measure accuracy and comparison of a measuring instrument that has a standard to determine the possible errors in a specific scale.
Today, calibration is basically used for the process of manufacturing so less and less possible mistakes and errors can be made. This process or measuring apparatus is also used to lower the cost of manufacture or possible production by determining or ensuring the quality.
Calibration is also ideal in minimizing possible errors because it uses scientific method to determine impending miscalculations while doing something to correct the errors if there were any. Calibration becomes more and more popular to companies because the method aims to economize time, labor, and other resources in any production by means of accurate verification.
If there were one industry that benefits a lot in the discovery and utilization of calibration, that would be the numerous laboratories all over the world that conduct seemingly endless and continuous research. The researcher or the tasked observer usually uses this measuring apparatus to refine his or her work.
Calibration is also greatly beneficial to a researcher is he or she doesn’t the time to develop his/her own apparatus due to lack of time and he/she needs a set of methods for accurate testing.
Aside from the field of research laboratories, calibration is also extremely beneficial because it makes the construction of instruments that are capable of measuring with sufficient precision and lesser probability to ensure correction.
Considered as the actual accuracy of a scale or balance, calibration is widely used in testing the products to get their accurate weight. In the United States alone, an agency called National Institute of Standards and Technology that is tasked to maintain standards for values of SI units and industrial standards, calibration has become a helpful tool in providing the traceability of their subjects of study by adhering to the basic standards of calibration.
Low Jeremy maintains http://Calibration.ArticlesForReprint.com. This content is provided by Low Jeremy. It may be used only in its entirety with all links included.
Quantitative Research
June 29th, 2010
Running Head: Factors to take into consideration when undertaking quantitative research
Name:
University:
Course:
Date:
Abstract:
When undertaking quantitative research a researcher should take into consideration ethical issues such as confidentiality and anonymity, an appropriate data collection method such as questionnaires and interview should be selected. Another factor to consider is the sampling method to be used and how this will aid in answering the research question. Data collected should be accurate and this can be achieved by choosing probability sampling method and proper formulation of questions. Finally information collected should be confidential and respondents should remain anonymous.
Introduction:
This paper highlights the factors that should be taken into consideration when undertaking quantitative research, research questions are subdivided into two broad categories and they include descriptive research that is aimed at answering what exists in the society and explanatory research that aims at explaining why this exist in society. Research studies will in most cases include descriptive and explanatory research whereby they will highlight what exist in the society and also why this exists. The following are some factors that need to be taken into consideration when undertaking quantitative research.
Variables and units:
Quantitative research is based on the fact that social phenomenal can be quantified and expressed numerically and therefore can be analyzed using statistical methods, quantitative research involves identification of observations units example individuals and households, variables are also identified that measure specific characteristics of the unit. The researcher should also classify variable collected into independent and dependent variables, this will help in answering the research question whereby the independent variable are collected to show their relationship with the dependent variable therefore the research study will identify the causal effect in the study. (Fowler, 2008)
The Process:
The research process entails a number of steps which include the research question, literature review, research design, data collection, data analysis, interpretation of results and answering the research question. (Hughes, 2006)
From the above diagram it is evident that there are steps that should be followed when undertaking quantitative research, these steps are discussed below: (Creswell, 2003)
1) Selection of topic:
The first step when undertaking quantitative research is the identification of the research topic, this involves designing the research question, the selection of the topic will depend on a number of factors and they include topic selection due to interest of an individual, significance of the social phenomena, research based on existing theories and the ability to research on the topic. (Creswell, 2003)
2) Literature review:
The next step is to undertake research on previous theories that have been developed based on the selected research topic. This step will also involve selection of the theoretical approach that will be used in the study. This step will also involve formulation of questions that will be answered in the study, at this point a literature review will be prepared in order to identify previous studies and theories that support the research questions and methods that will used in the study. (Creswell, 2003)
3) Research design:
Research design is determined by the research question, this involves identifying the most appropriate way to structure the quantitative research in order to answer the research question, the research question will also determine the type of data to be collected and analyzed.
4) Data collection methods:
The research design will involve selection of the most appropriate data collection method. Data collection methods include Questionnaires, Structured Interview, and Observation and analyzing documents
i) Questionnaires:
Questionnaires involve the formulation of questions that aid in the collection of data, questionnaires can be administered to respondents or mailed to the respondents, questionnaires are prepared and pre tested to determine whether questions are biased. Questions formulated will be based on the research question whereby they will aid in the collection of data that will help answer the research questions. Questions will either be closed or open ended, open ended questions are those questions that will require the respondent to input his own answers to the questions whereas closed questions are those questions whereby the respondent will choose from a list of answers highlighted in the questionnaire. (Fowler, 2008)
ii) Interviews:
An interview can be undertaken to collect data, there are two types of interviews and they include face to face interview and telephone interview, a face to face interview will involve collection of data whereby the respondent and research administrator sit together, a telephone interview on the other hand will involve calling the respondent and answers obtained over the phone, a face to face interview is considered more expensive given that the research administrator may be required to travel and also this process may be time consuming. (Fowler, 2008)
Interview are further subdivided into structured and unstructured interview, structured interview involves setting up a set of questions that will be administered while unstructured involve asking the respondent to elaborate on certain issues. (Fowler, 2008)
iii) Observation
Observation is another method of collecting data, this method involves observing participants and recording data, for example collecting data on the number of vehicles that use a certain highway will involve the observation method of collecting data. (Fowler, 2008)
iv) Analyzing documents:
This is secondary data collection method that involves collecting data from published documents example journals and a book, other sources include online databases which are relatively cheap methods of obtaining data, this method is preferred given that it is less time consuming and also less costly. This method however have a disadvantage given that it may given rise to accuracy problems, data accuracy will depend on the purpose of the data collected and that there may rise problem when data may unavailable and therefore a researcher will be required to use primary sources of data which include interview and questionnaires. (Fowler, 2008)
When designing the research data collection methods it is important that the researcher takes into consideration the respondent attitude, data collection methods such as questionnaires should be designed taking into consideration the reaction of the respondents when a certain question is directed to them, also the research questions should be clear and simple and should not be leading questions.
The other factor that should be taken into consideration is the cost, when selecting the data collection method one should take into consideration the cost associated with that method and whether there exist ways to reduce such costs, face to face interview sometimes may be costly and time consuming and therefore questionnaires that are relatively cheap may be preferred, also the questionnaires may be more appropriate given that they are less time consuming given that a lot of data can be collected at once, for example a study that involves participants from different regions and the respondent sends the questionnaires to the respondents. (Fowler, 2008)
5) Sampling:
Sampling in social research refers to the selection of a few respondents from a population, in some studies it is impossible to collect data from the entire population and therefore a sample is selected, when an appropriate sample is selected it results will represent the entire population, a sample reduces the cost associated with data collection and also reduces time consumed while collecting data. There are two types of sampling and they include probability sampling methods and non probability sampling methods.
In probability sampling the sampling error can be estimated and a confidence interval established for the entire population, probability sampling methods include random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling and clustered sampling. (Stuart, 1994)
i) Simple random sampling:
In simple random sampling the population respondents or units are identified and a random number generator is used, each unit in the population is assigned a number and the unit corresponding with the random number generator is included in the sample. The appropriate sample size is calculated using the expected error and therefore the number of total units selected corresponds to the calculated sample size. (Stuart, 1994)
ii) Systematic sampling:
This is a probability sampling method that involves the selection of the sample using intervals, the first step in undertaking a systematic sample is assigning each unit a number, the researcher then decides on the appropriate sample size and then the sample is selected using intervals, example a study may use systematic sample with a ten unit interval, this means that the first number to be selected will be 1, the next 11, the next 21, if the interval is 5 then the first number will be 1 then 6 then 11 etc. (Stuart, 1994)
iii) Stratified sampling:
Stratified sampling is also an acceptable probability sampling method, this method involves subdividing the entire population using certain characteristics example stratifying data into regions or gender, the next step involves undertaking simple random sampling on the categories and selecting the appropriate sample size. (Maxwell, 2005)
iv) Snowball sampling:
Snowball sampling is another sampling method which is a non probability sampling method, this method involves selecting the first respondent and then asking the respondent to refer you to another respondent, a good example where Snowball sampling is used where we have certain units with unique characteristics, example a research study on gay marriages will use these sampling method, or a study on prostitution will involve this sampling method given that the respondents will refer you to people they know who have the same characteristics. (Stuart, 1994)
6) Ethical issues:
In research there are some ethical issues that need to be taken into consideration, this includes confidentiality, cause no harm to respondents, anonymity and consent. A researcher should treat information collected with confidentiality, this means that the researcher should not state that a particular respondents made a certain statement. The other ethical issue to observe is anonymity whereby the respondent should not given out their names or reference numbers that may identify them as the particular individual that gave certain statements. (Punch, 2005)
The other ethical issue is consent. Participants should be briefed on the purpose of the study and also be informed on any recording that may take place, this way the researcher should gain the consent of the participants by briefing them on the purpose of the study and also how the information will be recorded. Finally the research should not cause harm to the individuals, this takes place whereby the researcher should not ask questions that offend the participants. (Fowler, 2008)
7) Data analysis:
When data has been collected the next step is to analyze data using statistical techniques such as calculating the mean, variance, correlation and regression analysis, all the data collected should be analyzed but some exceptions are made for example cases where we have incomplete questionnaires are rejected and not included in the analysis. In this stage the researcher should report accurately the results obtained and should not in any way alter variables collected in achieving desired results. Data should be presented as they are and a report written to show how the data respond to the research question or topic. (Bamberger, 2000)
Other factors to consider:
A good research study will be free from bias, this means that the information and data collected from the study should not vary in any systematic way, and bias in a study may be eliminated through the use of random sampling and also eliminating biased treatment of participants that may affect their responses. (Flick, 2006)
Conclusion:
From the above discussion it is evident that when undertaking quantitative research one has to take into consideration a number of factors, the first step is to formulate a research question, the next step involves literature review where a researcher should search for information on previous studies undertaken on the chosen research question. The next step involves research design where the data collection method and the sampling method is chosen, a researcher may chose to use questionnaires, interview or observation to collect data.
Research design also involves choosing an appropriate sampling method when the population is large, sampling methods include random sampling, quota sampling, systematic sampling and stratified sampling. Sampling helps in reducing costs associated with collecting data from the entire population and also is less time consuming whereby the study is undertaken only a few participants. After sampling and preparation of the data collection method the next step is data analysis and interpretation, this involves recording all the data collected and analyzing data to make statistical inferences and descriptive statistics, results should also report on how the data has helped answer the research question.
References:
Donald Stuart. 1994. Statistics: An introduction. Oxford: Blackwell press.
Floyd Fowler. 2008. Survey research methods. London: Sage Publishers.
John Creswell .2003.Research design: qualitative, quantitative and mixed method approaches. Oxford: Blackwell press.
Joseph Alex Maxwell. 2005. Qualitative and quantitative research design: an interactive approach. Cambridge: Cambridge university press
Keith Punch. 2005. Introduction to social research: quantitative and qualitative approaches. Oxford: Wiley and sons.
Loraine Blaxter, Christina Hughes and Malcolm Tight. 2006. How to research. Cambridge: Cambridge university press
Michael Bamberger .2000. Integrating quantitative and qualitative research. London: Butterworth Heinemann.
Uwe Flick. 2006. An introduction to qualitative research. Oxford: Blackwell press.
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Physico-chemical technology of highly toxic cyanide industrial wastewater treatment research – industrial waste water – water industries
June 28th, 2010
Abstract: The physico-chemical treatment technology in the field of handling hazardous cyanide waste disposal industry Sewage Application Ô; ¬; managers and engineering examples, clearly the physical and chemical techniques?? Chlorine oxidation of the features and advantages. Introduced the current foreign hazardous waste disposal in the area of the characteristics of cyanide treatment, and compared our present situation in the field, proving that chlorine oxidation is the most appropriate technical condition of our country. Physico-chemical technology treatment of industrial wastewater containing cyanide on Energy Saving, environmental protection is of great significance, prospects of the physico-chemical treatment of sewage containing cyanide technology research and popularization of the technology in the field of hazardous waste disposal far-reaching impact.
Keywords: energy conservation cyanide effluent chlorine oxidation Embodied
I. Introduction As China’s rapid economic development, industrial production technology continue to enhance the industrial hazardous waste output increased rapidly, variety and complexity, and the number of widely distributed generation source. According to “National Hazardous Waste List” in the industrial production of cyanide produced in the process of sewage is harmful to the human environment and human health is one of important sources, such as the effective disposal of non-random emissions, not only on the water environment, air environment and the serious impact on soil environment and destruction, but also the safety and health of the person poses a direct threat. Therefore, the in-depth study of highly toxic cyanide waste water treatment technology has become essential. Physical and chemical techniques?? Chlorine oxidation as a method of cyanide waste water disposal, hazardous waste disposal areas in China have broad applicability.
Second, analysis of physical and chemical technology
1, an overview of industrial sludge containing cyanide
Cyanide refers to the molecule containing cyano [-C N] of the substance, according to the elements or to connect with cyano groups are organic or inorganic cyanide can be divided into two categories, namely organic cyanide and inorganic cyanide, former known as nitrile, which is often referred to as cyanide and inorganic cyanide is widely used, more varieties.
Cyanide cyanide waste water mainly contains mineral components, are highly toxic substances, a small amount of cyanide will be people, animals in a very short period of time poisoning deaths, including cyanide concentration is very low (<0.05mg / L) lead poisoning fish and other aquatic organisms, but also caused crop failures.
Cyanide pollution of water caused water fish, livestock up the crowd of acute poisoning cases, both domestic and international coverage. These events are due to short-term component will be a lot of cyanide into the water caused. Therefore, in the industrial production process, must be strictly controlled emissions of cyanide components. Particular, must have proper sewage treatment facilities to reduce emissions outside of cyanide.
This paper, physico-chemical techniques?? Chlorine oxidation of the basic principles, processes, equipment selection and future direction of to cyanide effluent disposal as an example of materialization.
2, physico-chemical treatment process Embodied Technology?? Chlorine oxidation process industrial waste water containing cyanide is an effective, practical and economical method.
(1) physical and chemical techniques?? The basic principles of chlorine oxidation
Strong oxidation using chlorine oxidation of cyanide in waste water, to break down into a low-toxic or non toxic chlorine method is called oxidation. In the reaction process, to prevent Cyanogen chloride and chlorine into the air, Yat, the reaction often carried out under alkaline conditions, it is often referred to as alkaline chlorination. Chlorine oxidation in 1942 began to be used in industrial production has been 60 years in our country there are 50 years of application history, and application technology are maturing, therefore, the method is more mature.
(2) the advantages of chlorine oxidation
chlorine oxidation is a mature method, process equipment, has accumulated abundant experience;
number of chlorine oxidation of cyanide mill cyanide wastewater treatment to ensure a more satisfactory result, cyanide can be reduced to 0.5mg / L or less;
cyanates can be further hydrolyzed to produce non-toxic;
toxic heavy metals generate insoluble precipitates, water containing heavy metal concentrations in line with national emission standards;
low investment, simple process equipment, open stop easy operation.
(3) Oxidation reaction mechanism of chlorine
incomplete oxidation (partial cyanide) Chlorine oxidation of cyanate to cyanide oxidation, said the local oxidation of cyanide, cyanates in PH6 ~ 8 hydrolyzed ammonia and carbonate; (about the response time of 1 hour). The overall reaction is as following:
Cl-+ ClO-+2 H2O = NH3 + HCO3-+ Cl-
Or Cl-+ Cl2 +2 OH-+ H2O = NH3 + HCO3-+2 Cl-
Chlorination of the reaction theory than Cl2/CN- = 2.73 (weight ratio, same below).
complete oxidation Chlorine to cyanide oxidation reaction of nitrogen and carbonate as the complete oxidation of cyanide, the overall reaction is as following:
2CN-+5 ClO-+ H2O = 2HCO3-+ N2 +5 Cl-
Or 2CN-+5 Cl2 +10 OH-
= 2HCO3-+ N2 +10 Cl-+4 H2O
Chlorination of the reaction theory than Cl2/CN- = 6.83, treatment 1kg incomplete oxidation of cyanide and more than the consumption of chlorine 4.1kg/kgCN-.
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Organic Soil Fertility Management for Enhanced Paddy Production
June 28th, 2010
ORGANIC SOIL FERTILITY MANAGEMENT FOR ENHANCED PADDY PRODUCTION AND REVENUE GENERATION WITH LESS COST AS ACHIEVED IN SOME MODEL PADDY FIELDS IN ORISSA
A.K. Panigrahix1, T.R. Sahoox2, H.S. Beherax3 and N.K. Swainx4
ABSTRACT:
Green revolution was introduced in the country in the early sixties to meet the demand of food and add cereal cultivation in the Rabi. The aftermath of this revolution is alarmingly disastrous. The humus devoid soil has lost its water holding ability, pests have acquired tremendous resistance against pesticides. Indian paddy fields are adding roughly about 37.8 metric tonnes of methane, a green house gas, into the atmosphere. Food and underground water contaminated with pesticides.
The environmental deteriorations, food and water contaminations demand a paradigm shift from chemical to organic agriculture. With the growing demand of food, diminishing arable land holdings and exodus of the agrarian communities from villages to towns abandoning agriculture, only organic farming will not suffice. The new technique conceived is known as sustainable agriculture, where soil fertility, crop yield and pest management are taken care of together with the environmental protection. This method of agriculture is in harmony with the nature. The article examines three ex situ experiments where the above mentioned issues are examined along with the cost benefit ratio and throws light in making agriculture sustainable.
INTRODUCTION
More than six decades ago,Sir Albert Howard explained the nature of soil fertility in his famous book, “An agricultural Testament” as under. The nature of soil fertility can be understood only when it is considered in relation to Nature’s round. To study soil fertility we have to know the natural working system and to adopt methods of investigation in strict relation to such a subject. We must look at soil fertility as we would study a business where the profit and loss account must be taken along with the balance sheet, the standing of the concern, and the method of management. We have to consider the wood, not the individual tree. So it is with soil fertility. According to him, a fertile soil is one which has humus in abundance. If the soil is deficient in humus, the volume of pore space is reduced, the aeration of the soil is impeded, there is insufficient organic matter for the soil population, the soil machinary runs down, the supply of oxygen, water and dissolved salts needed by the root hairs is reduced, the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins in the green leaf proceeds at a lower tempo; growth is affected.
CHEMICAL AGRICULTURE, Impact Analysis;
Then came the war and the war ended sooner than expected, resulting in stock piling of war surplus exploxive related materials, mostly compounds of nitrogen and phosphorus. Global approach to agriculture modified in the event of population growth and developments in material and biological sciences. New seeds were developed and introduced to enhance food production which soon became popular in populous countries like India, China, South East Asian Countries and Japan. War surplus chemicals were converted into compounds called artificial chemical fertilizers. The seeds, popularly called “Green revolution seeds” or “Miracle seeds”, were developed to consume these synthetic artificial chemical fertilizers with water and
produce more food. Thus, monoculture came into being at the expense of agro biodiversity and resources like water diminished.
Four decades into the green revolution in India, the situation is pathetic; soil in general has become humus deficient, excessively hard and bears no pores for holding air and moisture. This soil no longer harbours the beneficial microbes but the pathogens and pest eggs, requiring excessive use of synthetic pesticides. The impacts of these agro chemicals, the artificial chemical fertilizers and synthetic pesticides are well observable. No data have been published by any the Indian agencies like the US Environment Protection Agency (USEPA). The USEPA revealed in 1991 that the projected estimate of methane emission from the Indian paddy fields amounted to 37.8 metric tonnes per year, thus accusing the Indian paddy cultivators in adding to the global green house gas accumulation as methane is also considered as a green house gas. Consequently in Indian more emphasis is now attached to shift to non conventional agriculture and keep paddy cultivation limited to 47 percent of the total arable land. Use of artificial chemical fertilizers especially N- fertilizers always invite the agricultural pests and applications of pesticides, especially synthetic pesticides. The disastrous consequences of the use of these synthetic pesticides over several decades are now clearly observable. There is a rise of pesticides resistance in the pest species and diseases causing microbes at the expense of the beneficial organisms like the beneficial insects (honey bee) and scavenging birds (vultures). Reports of crop failure are also linked to the changes in natural status of the soil. Reports of methane emission are obviously owing to excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers like Urea. Reports of occurance of agricultural pesticides in underground water (bottled water and soft drinks) are certainly due to their excessive applications and non degradations. There are reports of people in villages dying after consuming water from shallow tube wells in Orissa (Chakulia, Balasore, 2005).
HYPOTHESIS
It was thus felt essential to find a solution to both, enhance crop yield through enhanced soil fertility organically without further degrading its status and keep the pathogens and pests at bay through the use of natural pest repellants, botanical pesticides and employing biological pest control methods. But the most important one is, following Sir Howard, to bring out a balance sheet of profit- loss, making cultivation a profitable enterprise so that uncalled for future situations like resource retirement, contract farming and above all exodus of the agrarian communities from villages to cities are successfully thwarted. In India, agriculture is a million year old enterprise and has changed Sir Howard from being an western expert to an oriental expert. The population is growing alarmingly but arable land is diminishing. The farmers are committing suicides owing crop failures. There ought to be a shift in approach to the whole practice of agriculture at the moment. The modern agriculture should be made sustainable, i.e., in harmony with the nature. With the foregone objectives set in mind the authors experimented with the principal crop of Orissa, i.e. paddy cultivation, both in Kharif and Rabi.Methodology of approach, application, observation and cost benefit ratio of three such ex situ experiments, one of Rabi and the two others of Kharif are furnished below.
Material Method and Observations:
Experiment-1 : Rabi 2003 -04
Farmer’s name and address – Sri Surendra Nath Patra, Vill- Dharampur, Fulwar Kasba, Balasore, Orissa.
Soil type – Deltaic alluvial
Crop type- Paddy (HYV)- Lalat (ORS-26-2014-4) known qualities – Duration: 125-130 days.
Grain type: Medium * Slender, Grain yield/hectare: 40 quintals (as on record)
Experimental Unit Area: 1 Acre
Source of seed : Farmers own saved (OS)
SL No.. Activities associated Control Rs Chemical Rs. Organic Rs
1. Seed cost OS 0.00 OS 0.00 OS 0.00
2. Seed bed preparation 2HL 100.00 2HL 100.00 2HL 100.00
1BL 80.00 1BL 80.00 1BL 80.00
3. Ist cultivation Tractor 600.00 Tractor 600.00 Tractor 600.00
(2 hours) (2 hours) (2 hours)
4. Farm yard manure Not applied Not applied 2 tonnes 0.00
(II)
5. Puddling 6 HL 300.00 6HL 300.00 6HL 300.00
2BL 160.00 2BL 160.00 2BL 160.00
6. Basal application Nil Gromor Pongam 70 kg 700.00 Oil cake MOP 1qt. 400.00 20 kg 100.00 Azolla 0.00
(I.I)
7. Transplantation 35HL 1750.00 40 HL 2000.00 35 HL 1750.00
8. Interculture 5HL 250.00 7HL 350.00 5 HL 250.00
9. a) Ist top dressing Nil Urea Pongam Oilcake
12 kg 60.00 50 kg 200.00
MOP Cow urine
6kg 30.00 250 lts. 0.00 (I.I)
b) 2nd top dressing Nil Urea
10 kg 50.00 Cow urine
MOP 250 lts. 0.00 5kg 25.00 (I.I)
10. Pesticide application Nil 400.00 200.00
(lure appln.)
11. Irrigation (total) 250.00 250.00 250.00
12. Cutting of crop 15HL 750.00 18HL 900.00 15HL 750.00
13. Threshing 10HL 500.00 13HL 650.00 10HL 500.00
14. Miscellaneous expenses Nil 100.00 150.00
(pest management)
15. Total cost involved(in Rs) 4740.00 6855.00 5690.00
16. a.Yield of grains 12.7qntls. 20.2qntls 23.5qntls
@520/-per qntl @520/-qntl @520/-qntl
6604.00 10504.00 12220.00
b.Yield of straw 15.85qntls 25.07qntls 29.47qntls
@80/-=1268.00 @70/-=1755.00 @80/-=2358.00
17. Total yield(in terms of Rs.) 7,872.00 12,259.00 14578.00
18. Net benefit 3,132.00 5,404.00 8,888.00
19. Cost benefit Ratio (17/15) 1.66 1.788 2.562
Experiment -2: Kharif 2004-05:
Name and address of the farmer: Raghunath Barik, Bhimpur
Soil type: Coastal alluvial Crop type: Paddy HYV (Pooja) (recently introduced)
Experimental unit area: 1 Acre Source of seed: Farmer’s own saved seed (0S)
SL No.. Activities associated Control Rs Chemical Rs. Organic Rs
1. Seed cost OS 0.00 OS 0.00 OS 0.00
2. Seed bed preparation 2HL 100.00 2HL 100.00 2HL 100.00
1BL 80.00 1BL 80.00 1BL 80.00
3. Ist cultivation Tractor Tractor Tractor
2hrs 600.00 2hrs. 600.00 2hrs. 600.00
4. Farm yard Manure Not applied Not applied 2 tonnes (II) 0.00
5. Puddling 6HL 300.00 6HL 300.00 6HL 300.00
2BL 160.00 2BL 160.00 2BL 160.00
6. Basal application NIL Gromor Pongam oil cake
70 kg 700.00 1.5q 600.00
MOP Sesbania
20kg 100.00 10kg 110.00
B.F 500gm. 100.00
V.C. 5 qntls.
(I.I) 0.00
7. Transplantation 35HL 1750.00 40HL 20000.00 35HL 1750.00
8. Interculture 8HL 400.00 10HL 500.00 8HL 400.00
9. Ist Top dressing Nil Urea Bacterial fertiliser
12kg 60.00 250 gm 50.00
MOP Compost 2.5qntls.
6kg 30.00 (1.1) 0.00
10. 2nd top dressing Nil Urea Bacterial fertilizers
10kg 50.00 250 gm 50.00
MOP Compost 2.5qntls.
5kg 25.00 (1.1) 0.00
11. Pesticide application Nil Total 400.00 (1.1) 0.00
12. Crop cutting 15HL 750.00 18HL 900.00 15HL 750.00
13. Threshing 10HL 500.00 13HL 650.00 10HL 500.00
14. Miscellaneous Nil 100.00 150.00
15. Total cost involved (in Rs.) 4,640.00 6,755.00 5,700.00
16. a. Yield of grain 16.50qntl. 8,580.00 21.9qntl. 11,388.00 22.10qntl. 11,492/-
b. Yield of straw 22.10qntl 1,768.00 27.5qntl 1,925.00 29.4qntl 2,352/-
c. Total yield(in Rs.) 10,348.00 13,313.00 13,844/-
17. Net benefit 5,708.00 6,558.00 8,144/-
18. Cost benefit ratio (16c/15) 2.23 1.971 2.429
Soil fertility condition of the above crop at different stages.
Plot N (Kg/ha) P (Kg/ha) K(Kg/ha)
Subiah and Asija, 1956 Olsen’s method Ammonium Acetate method (alkaline potassium permanganate)
Initial 45DAT After Initial 45DAT After Initial 45DAT After
harvest harvest harvest
Control 511.9 499.4 426.49 50.00 44.6 15.2 312.0 300.8 200.25
Chemical 511.9 561.2 520.57 50.00 52.2 26.16 312.0 346.6 241.9
Organic 511.9 560.7 564.4 50.00 43.7 18.24 312.0 336.8 251.32
Experiment. 3. Kharif 2004-05
Name and address of the farmer: Sri Pitamber Jena,
At- Mangalpur, P.O.- Chengua- Mangalpur, Via- Bhimda, Dist; Mayurbhanj (Orissa)
Soil type : Sandy loam
Crop type : Paddy (HYV) Kasturi
Source of seed : Purchased from other farmer (PI)
(7.5 kg @ 5/- per kg= Rs. 37.50p)
Known yield potential of the variety (Kasturi) ± 20 quintals per acre (chemical)
Plot size : 30 decimals (100 decimals = 1 Acre)
Ingredients applied:
1. Sesbania (Dhanicha) seed @ 12 kg/acre = 3kg 600gm @ Rs. 11/- 1 kg = Rs. 39.60p)
2. Pongam oil cake @ 150kg/acre = 45 kg @ Rs. 4/-kg = Rs. 180.00
3. Cow urine soaked cowshed soil @ 4 quintals / acre= 1.2 quintals (Internal input)
4. Fresh cow urine @ 7-8 liters twice in a week for 6 weeks (internal input)
5. Home made heap compost – 2 cartloads (I I)
MATERIAL METHOD
Sesbania seeds were sown in the soil after the first ploughing and allowed to grow up to preflowering stage where after the field was ploughed and the plants were incorporated into the soil together with pongam oil cake, cow urine soaked cowshed soil and home made compost. The farm land top soil was thus converted into a paste of soil, sesbania plants, pongam oil cake, urine soaked cow shed soil, home made compost and stagnated water (just enough to create a muddy condition). It was allowed to stand overnight. The field was then transplanted with the paddy seedlings two days after. Thereafter, the field was periodically weeded and fresh cow urine applied at regular intervals to add more potash* to the soil.
[*The authors found out that fresh cow urine is a rich source of available potash to the plants and help in better fruiting.]
OBSERVATION:
1. Soil samples were collected at different stages for study of soil fertility conditions and the NPK values were ascertained.
Study of sample N(Kg/ha) P(Kg/ha) K(K/ha)
Initial 283.7 42.6 168.3
45 DAT 458.2 45.8 273.6
75 DAT 462.1 39.9 260.1
After harvest 393.6 35.2 254.7
2. Yeild of grains at harvest: 8.5 quintals (@ 28.33 quintals/acre –or- 70 quintals/hectare)
3. Yeild of straw at harvest : 9.9 quintals (@ 32.9 quintals / acre)
Cost Benefit Index :
1. Total expenditure incurred: Rs. 1317.10
A. Ingredients: (purchased input)
i. Cost of paddy seeds : Rs 37.50
ii. Cost of sesbania seeds : Rs. 39.60
iii. Cost of pongam oil cake : Rs. 180.00
B. Labour:
i. Seed bed preparation 1 HL : Rs. 50.00
ii. Ist cultivation 1 BL : Rs. 80.00
iii. Puddling I BL : Rs 80.00
iv. Transplantation 10 HL : Rs. 500.00
v. Interculture 1HL : Rs. 50.00
vi. Crop cutting 4 HL : Rs. 200.00
vii. Threshing 2HL : Rs. 100.00
2. Total sale proceeds of yield:
i.Value of grain,
8.5 quintals@ 600/- per quintal = : Rs. 5100.00
ii Value of straw,
9.9 quintals@ 80/-per quintals = : Rs. 792.00
———————
TOTAL Rs. 5892.00
3. Cost benefit ratio (2/1) = 4.47
Abbreviations used :
HL = Human labour, BL =Bullock Labour, MOP = Muriate of potash, N= Nitrogen (total), P= Phosphorus (available), K= Potash(available),II= Internal input, PI=– Purchased input, B.F.= Bacterial Feriliser, V.C.= VermiCompost.
x1 – Principal Investigator, UGC MRP Organic Farming, F.M. (Auto) College, Balasore (Orissa)756001
x2- Project Associate, UGC MRP Organic Farming, F.M.(Auto) College, Balasore(Orissa) 756001
x3- Research Associates, PPBSA- Navdanya, Ranipatna, Balasore(Orissa) 756001.
x4- Co-investigator, UGC MRP Organic Farming, F.M.(Auto) College, Balasore(Orissa) 756001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:
The authors are indebted to the University Grants Commission, Bahadur shah Zafar Marg, New Delhi-2, and the Navdanya Trust, A/60 hauz Khas, New Delhi-16 for the financial assistances received from them to undertake the ex- situ field studies and laboratory assessments.
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Author is an avid natrure analyst,has worked on & written books,research papers and short & large articles on several aspects of the nature such as farming,forest,food and water etc.
Embryonic Stem Cells: Can they cure Diabetes Mellitus type 1?
June 28th, 2010
Embryonic Stem Cells: Can they cure Diabetes Mellitus type 1?
Abiram Ganeshanathan, London
In this research article, I will be discussing the controversial and thought provoking topic of embryonic stem cell research. However, I will be concentrating on the ultimate concept of it providing a long term and viable option to cure Diabetes mellitus type one. A range of sources have been consulted from around the globe in order to provide an in depth and most importantly, an impartial and accurate report on this stimulating topic.
The proposal alone of using human embryonic stem cells for the purpose of medicinal research has caused intense debate among many political and religious groups. Research into this field, requires one to analyse the priorities of medical research alongside the prosperous future it could provide.
Embryonic Stem Cells
Stem cells are unlike other cells. They are unique in that they are unspecialized and thus retain the ability to develop into any of the wide spectrum of cells possible (in theory) within the human body (pluripotency). The lack of tissue specific structures enables stem cells to form specialised cells in a process known as differentiation.
Embryonic Stem cells differ from other variances of stem cells due to their capability to replicate themselves in a laboratory indefinitely. More importantly however, they can generate into any type of cell within the human body. Other types of stem cells, such as Adult stem cells, are limited to what type of cells they can form and this has resulted in their use being very limited.
Diabetes mellitus (Type 1)
Type one diabetes is an ‘auto-immune’ disease. Those who are diagnosed with d.m.t.o,* are unfortunate in that their immune system creates antibodies that attach to the beta cells in the pancreas which destroy the cells that make insulin. In rare circumstances, it has been caused by inflammation of the pancreas but this cause has only affected a miniscule proportion of sufferers. (Kilvert, 2008) If left untreated the consequences could be fatal and potentially lead to death. There are numerous serious problems associated with diabetes if not treated ranging from Atheroma to Blindness. In the UK alone, 1 in 250 develops type one diabetes but it can increase
to 15 in 250 if a first degree relative has been diagnosed with it. (www.diabetes.co.uk, 2009) As of late 2008, it has been estimated that eighteen million people have d.m.t.o worldwide which illustrates just how vital a potential cure could be. (WHO – World Health Organisation, Nov 2008)
The complications of the treatment of d.m.t.o are caused by the necessity to ensure the correct amount of insulin is taken. Excess insulin can cause the glucose level to plummet thus causing hypoglycaemia or adversely a lack of insulin could cause the afore mentioned problems of untreated d.m.t.o.. At present, the current treatment to ensure a patient stays healthy, is for them to take insulin injections 2-4 times a day for the rest of their lives. (www.diabetes.co.uk, 2009)
Why specifically Embryonic Stem Cells?
In order to understand and analyse the results and progress of research into this field, it is imperative to understand why embryonic stem cells are being focused on a solution as opposed to other forms of stem cells.
Somatic (Adult) stem cells have been leading stem cell research in the past as it never necessarily conflicted with the majority of ethical or religious groups and their beliefs. They are rare undifferentiated cells that can be found in differentiated tissues with a capacity for self renewal in addition to differentiation, although this ability is limited. There is a tiny amount of somatic stem cells within each tissue and upon these being removed, their capacity to divide and multiply dwindles leading to difficulty in obtaining large amounts of somatic stem cells.
As research progressed however, the flaws of these stem cells were exposed. The number of cell types that they can develop into are restricted which hinders its versatility and its application to cure a variety of diseases. Somatic cells also have an increased chance of carrying mutations of the DNA compared to its human embryonic stem cell counterpart. The reason being the adult cells could have mutated over the respective person’s lifetime in a cell division process known as mitosis. Embryonic stem cells have had less exposure to this process and thus regenerate at a pace that is much greater than that of adult stem cells.
In the placement of a culture, (Growth of cells in vitro in an artificial medium for research or medical treatment (The National Institutes of Health resource for stem cell research, 2009)), embryonic stem cells are able to divide infinitely and with relative ease in comparison to somatic cells. Having said the above, adult stem cells have a superiority in that the cells are the patient’s own cells, and there is no chance of their body rejecting the cells as they are compatible. There is no need for immune suppressing drugs which would otherwise occur with embryonic stem cells making the patient vulnerable to other diseases.
The main reason for deciding on embryonic stem cell research in particular was due to the key aspect that it could differentiate and divide easier and to a greater extent making it very versatile and therefore seemingly have a higher potential to cure a disease such as d.m.t.o. The points that have been made as of yet, are to provide a basic knowledge and all will be explained further within the article alongside a more detailed analysis of the points made.
Can Embryonic Stem Cells cure diseases?
Although embryonic stem cells can be grown in culture/vitro, research is still at a very premature stage. Before even considering its potential to cure d.m.t.o, it must first be deduced if embryonic stem cells can cure diseases at all.
From an outside perspective, it would appear that the possibilities are endless, and that embryonic stem cells could well become the 21st century penicillin. However in reality, the human body is a complex being and there are an enormous number of complications to overcome e.g. the patient’s immune system rejecting the new cells and destroying them.
Regardless of the fact that research is in its premature stage, there have been encouraging reports. In the United States of America, researchers used embryonic stem cells to cure mice who were bred to suffer from a Parkinson’s-like condition. Embryonic mouse stem cells differentiated into neurons in a lab dish. They were then transplanted into a rat with Parkinson’s disease (PD), and the isolated cells formed functional connections and reduced disease symptoms. The researchers found that the grafted cells established functional connections with surrounding brain cells and began to release dopamine. The rats that received the differentiated cells showed significant improvements in symptoms during behavioural tests. Since undifferentiated embryonic stem cells sometimes multiply out of control and form tumours, the researchers measured the number of cells in the grafts at several time points after the transplants. The number of cells in the grafted areas stabilized by four weeks after the transplants, and none of the rats developed tumours. (Frazin)
Albeit, it may only be in mice but the results are very promising in particular because there were no tumours formed and with the brain cells releasing the vital catecholamine dopamine. The latter is of particular interest as if related to the context of d.m.t.o., it would be beta cells releasing the hormone insulin so there are some similarities in that the embryonic stem cells were used in order to differentiate into a cell that releases a chemical of some sort.
Humans and rats have the same basic physiology, similar organs, and similar body plans. Both control body chemistry using similar hormones, both have nervous systems that work in the same way, both react similarly to infection and injury. (How Humans Are Like Rats, 2003) This likeliness between both humans and rats increases the relevancy of the results of the experiment. Nonetheless, there is no guarantee that it will work on humans and it would be naive to believe it would be directly transferable to humans from rats without flaw.
On the other hand, there has been no embryonic stem cell research successfully tested on humans. Even the latest breakthrough by Geron Corporation, the first group to ever obtain the approval of the FDA to conduct clinical trials, has been delayed. Despite eight years of intense research, an abnormal amount of cysts caused the company to delay trials (http://singularityhub.com/2009/09/02/geron-explains-why-first-embryonic-stem-cell-clinical-trial-is-stalled/, 2009). There has not been an opportunity for anyone to safely test on humans as of yet. Until, an organisation has perfected testing on animals, it is only sensible to postpone the testing of humans, but the results are promising. With most if not all medication being first tested on animals, it shows that results from animal testing are relevant and valid to use in relation to embryonic stem cells potential human use as has been the practice for several decades now in pharmaceuticals and medicine. It would be reasonable to conclude that embryonic stem cells do in fact have the potential to cure diseases, but maybe not in the immediate future. A more thorough conclusion can only be made with some evidence of human testing but with none being conducted; only time will give a concrete conclusion but at present, the results are looking highly promising.
Evidence of embryonic stem cells to cure Diabetes mellitus type one
An important factor that must be considered in this research article is what evidence has already been conducted that would suggest it is or would be a cure to d.m.t.o..
Dr Ron McKay of the Laboratory of Molecular Biology and his colleagues described a series of experiments in which they induced mouse embryonic cells to differentiate into insulin-secreting structures that resembled pancreatic islets. Dr McKay and his colleagues began with embryonic stem cells and let them form an aggregate of cells containing all three embryonic germ layers (known as embryoid bodies). They then selected a population of cells from the embryoid bodies. Using a sophisticated five-stage culturing technique, the researchers were able to induce the cells to form islet-like clusters that resembled those found in native pancreatic islets. The cells responded to normal glucose concentrations by secreting insulin, although insulin amounts were lower than those secreted by normal islet cells. Quoted by Dr McKay “This system is unique in that the embryonic cells form a functioning pancreatic islet, complete with all the major cell types. The cells assemble into islet-like structures that contain another layer, which contains neurons and is similar to intact islets from the pancreas. (Differentiation of Embryonic Stem Cells to Insulin-Secreting Structures Similar to Pancreatic Islets, 2004). This outcome is fascinating achievement as what is has enabled to do is, begin to partially cure d.m.t.o. even if it is in the case of mice. Although the levels of insulin produced were not the same as that of healthy islet cells, it is significant progress and with some alterations and tweaking, the future is looking hopeful to cure diabetes type one, albeit in mice. That said, a cure in mice and rats is often not far from that of humans as explained in paragraph three and four on page four.
Research conducted during the last decade has also provided more evidence that human embryonic cells can develop into cells that can and do produce insulin. Dr Melton, Nissim Benvinisty of the Hebrew University in Jerusalem, and Josef Itskovitz-Eldor of the Technion in Haifa, Israel, reported that human embryonic stem cells could be manipulated in culture to express the PDX-1 gene; a gene that controls insulin transcription. In the experiments, researchers cultured human embryonic stem cells and allowed them to spontaneously form embryoid bodies. The embryoid bodies were then treated with various growth factors, including nerve growth factor. PDX-1 is associated with the formation of beta islet cells and thus these results suggest that beta islet cells may be one of the cell types that spontaneously differentiate in the embryoid bodies. Researchers now think that nerve growth factor may be one of the key signals for inducing the differentiation of beta islet cells and can be exploited to direct differentiation in the laboratory. (PNAS 97 (21): 11307-11312), (Effects of eight growth factors on the differentiation of cells derived from human embryonic stem cells, Melton, Douglas A.) Complementing these findings is work done by Jon Odorico of the University of Wisconsin in Madison who in preliminary findings, has shown that human embryonic stem cells can differentiate and express the insulin gene but it still remains in early stages with many hurdles yet to overcome. (The National Institutes of Health resource for stem cell research) Once again, another encouraging report of results, these results are of particular importance as it allows guidance of where to continue next e.g. consider intensive research into nerve growth and then using those results to continue researching into curing d.m.t.o. using embryonic stem cells.
Possibly the most important finding in the last couple of years is that of Novocell who report that they managed to convert human embryonic stem cells into insulin-producing cells. The researchers found that when they injected these human cells into diabetic mice, the treatment alleviated diabetes in the rodents. The new technique used will provide doctors with a bulk supply of clean, uncontaminated insulin-secreting cells for use in diabetes patients. It is a controlled process where the quality of the cell being implanted remains the same every time an implant is done. Unfortunately, much of the science behind this new method remains behind closed doors and is difficult to access but a Dr Curt Freed, director of Neurotransplantation from the University of Colorado School of medicine was quoted saying “This is an extraordinary breakthrough by scientists at Novocell, this discovery holds promise for everyone with insulin-requiring diabetes. While outcomes of clinical trials are unpredictable, these cells are likely to be tested in patients soon. (ABC News Medical Unit, 2008) With little scientific information being released, it is difficult to come to a conclusion yet the basic outline seems to be fantastic news particularly as it was found less than a year ago. With the backing of a neutral head researcher of another organisation, Dr Freed, also meriting Novocell on their discovery alongside ABC News Medical unit, it is a huge advancement in the race to find a cure.
Despite the promising results, a working solution is still quite far away. There are several complications to overcome before this becomes a working and viable solution. As far as embryonic stem cell research is considered, we have come to a stage where what was one of the biggest concerns, the production of tumours, no longer occurs (in most cases) immediately after the transplant of the embryonic differentiated islet cells is completed. The cause of d.m.t.o. is due to the immune system destroying the cells that produce insulin. A major question is “Will the human body detect the new cells as foreign?”, and the answer to that is yes. Therefore that leads to a scenario where immunosuppressive drugs must be taken in order for the immune system to not destroy the new cells. That in turn leads to a very dangerous situation where the respective person is left with a very vulnerable body where they are susceptible to a variety of diseases. This would mean that immunosuppressive drugs (along with immunosuppressant treatments) would probably have to be taken for the rest of their lives – in the same way a sufferer of d.m.t.o. has to take insulin injections regularly for the rest of their lives. Another key factor to consider is for what period of time will the cells remain fully differentiated? If this is not answered, then the potential for cells to become carcinogenic and for tumours to form is always a risk. it is im[ Yet, research has not quite reached that advanced stage but it is important to drive home the idea that despite the encouraging reports, collectively, there will be future complications and difficulties which must be overcome.
Abiram Ganeshanathan, a student from London. Aged only 17, and studying biology chemistry and mathematics at A2.